Race Mixture

Virtually from the beginning of the Spanish settlement of Mexico, race mixture was quite common. Early on most of the resultant offspring were incorporated into either the Spanish or Indian elements of society. But within two to three generations, especially in the larger cities, a separate classification of mixed-race people, commonly termed mestizos, began to appear in appreciable numbers. This ethnic group grew rapidly, with most of its members holding semiskilled or unskilled positions in the Spanish sphere of urban life. They typically identified with the Spanish colonial world, not the Indian, and preferred urban residence for the most part. Only gradually and later in the colonial period did any significant numbers of these mixed bloods move into the countryside.

With the passage of time, other mixed-blood classifications were formed, but overall the urban dwellers of colonial Mexico effectively organized themselves and recognized three ethnic groups: Spaniards, mixed-bloods (also termed castas and commonly including mulattoes and the most acculturated Indians), and Indians (meaning here those who still substantially followed native ways and characteristically resided in the outlying barrios). In 1792, Antequera in the heavily Indian Oaxaca Valley that contained rather few Spanish-owned estates, had around 7,000 citizens of Spanish descent, only some 5,000 of Indian, fully 3,500 classified as mestizos (or castizos, a variant), and just over 2,100 mulattoes and other African-white mixtures. This is a remarkable mix of ethnic groups and mixed classifications for a city so distant from the colonial heartland in central Mexico.

Cities also served as the primary arena of social and ethnic mobility. A fair number of mixed-bloods and Indians enjoyed some level of economic success and social acceptance. Such people typically then sought to present themselves as a member of a higher ethnic classification: Indians as mestizos, and mestizos as Spaniards. They often succeeded, for in this dynamic urban world ethnic identity was determined as much by one's social category as by one's physical appearance. This process of racial mobility is termed "social race." Because of it, urban censuses in the late colonial period depict a much larger "Spanish" group than would be expected if a significant number of mixed-bloods were not successfully ascending into that category.

Mexican cities of the colonial period were typical of their counterparts worldwide in having higher death than birth rates over the long term. The lack of sanitation and crowded conditions combined with commonly ineffectual medical care to create this state. But cities grew nonetheless— although erratically—because of continual rural-to-urban migration. People from all ethnic categories and different social levels moved from the countryside to cities because of the enhanced economic possibilities they promised and the more vibrant cultural life they offered. In times of famine or rebellion, people tended to flock to the cities in heavy numbers, counting on supplies and safety that urban authorities seemed better able to provide.

Colonial Mexican cities certainly had quite high levels of crime, but they also experienced few social disturbances of notable scale or duration. The urban masses generally lacked a compelling grievance or any strong sense of class solidarity. Many lived in close association with their employers or masters. The many rural migrants and the varieties of ethnic identity also served to undercut group identity. Finally, cities usually provided more social services, such as hospitals, however rudimentary, than did the countryside, and municipal authorities sought to assure adequate supplies of basic foodstuffs at low prices to the commoners.